Information on Air Cleaners/Conditioners/Humidifiers
COUNTY OF HUMBOLDT
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
PHILLIP R. CRANDALL, DIRECTOR
PUBLIC HEALTH BRANCH
ALEXANDRA WINELAND, DIRECTOR
529 I Street Eureka, CA 95501
(707) 445-6200 Fax: (707) 445-6097
Air conditioners
Little is known about the impact of using various types of air conditioners and air filters on indoor air pollutant concentrations. The conventional wisdom is that air conditioners reduce the amount of outdoor particles infiltrating indoors because air-conditioned homes usually have lower air exchange rates than homes that use open windows for ventilation. However, some air conditioners have both “outdoor air” and “re-circulate” settings; these air-conditioners need to be set on “re-circulate”. If possible, one should replace the air-conditioner filter with a pleated medium efficiency filter. However, caution must be taken to assure that the system is able to handle the possible increased airflow resistance. Some air conditioners may also be fitted with filters. The more useful are HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Arrestor) filters, which can capture most of the tiny particles associated with smoke and can further reduce the amount of outside air pollution that gets indoors.
Room air cleaners
Some air cleaners can be effective at reducing indoor particle levels, provided the specific air cleaner is adequately matched to the indoor environment in which it is placed. Most air cleaners are not effective at removing gases and odors. The two basic types for particle removal include:
(a) Mechanical air cleaners, which contain a fiber or fabric filter. The filters need to be sealed tightly in their holders, and cleaned or replaced regularly.
(b) Electronic air cleaners, such as electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) and ionizers. ESPs use a small electrical charge to collect particles from air pulled through the device. Ionizers, or negative ion generators, cause particles to stick to materials (such as carpet and walls) near the device. Electronic air cleaners usually produce small amounts of ozone (a respiratory irritant that can damage lungs) as a byproduct.
The effectiveness of an air cleaner is usually reported in terms of efficiency, which can be misleading, as it only tells half of the story. The other important factor is airflow. Together, these two factors equal the Clean Air Delivery Rate (CADR), which is a better measure of how a device will actually perform. For example, 99.99 percent efficiency sounds great, but if the air exchange rate is only 20 cubic feet per minute (cfm), one would be better off at 90 percent efficiency with 100 cfm air exchange rate (CADR: 20 vs 90 cfm).
Room air cleaner units should be sized to filter at least two or three times the room volume per hour. Most portable units will state on the package the unit’s airflow rate, the room size it is suitable for, its particle removal efficiency and perhaps its CADR. Central system air units should handle at least 0.5 air changes per hour, the air exchange rate necessary to reasonably ventilate a house continuously under most conditions.
High and medium efficiency media filters and electrostatic precipitators can be added to central air conditioning systems to keep particle levels in indoor air within acceptable levels during a prolonged smoke event. However, these filters create greater air resistance in the air conditioning system, and may require modifications to the system. In addition, electronic air-cleaners can increase indoor levels of ozone, as noted above.
Devices that remove gases and odors are relatively costly, both to purchase and maintain. They force air through materials such as activated charcoal or alumina coated with potassium permanganate. However, the filtering medium can become quickly overloaded and may need to be replaced often.
For more information about residential air cleaners:
www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/residair.html http://www.arb.ca.gov/research/indoor/acdsumm.htm www.lungusa.org/pub/cleaners/air_clean_toc.html
Air cleaners can be purchased from most hardware stores, Sears, or on-line retailers such as Home Depot, Walmart, Costco, or Amazon.
Ozone generators – a poor choice
Some devices, known as ozone generators, personal ozone devices, “energized oxygen” generators, and “pure air” generators, are sold as air cleaners, but the position of public health agencies, including the California Air Resources Board and US Environmental Protection Agency, is that they do more harm than good. These devices are designed to produce ozone gas to react with pollutants in the air. Ozone is composed of three atoms of oxygen. The third atom can detach from the molecule and reattach to molecules of other substances, altering their chemical composition. It is this ability to react with other substances that forms the basis of the manufacturers’ claims.
Ozone, whether in its pure form or mixed with other chemicals, can be harmful to health. When inhaled, ozone can damage the lungs. Relatively low amounts of ozone can irritate the airways, cause coughing, chest pain and tightness, and shortness of breath. It can also worsen chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, as well as compromise the body’s ability to fight respiratory infections. As a result, using an ozone generator during a smoke event may actually increase the adverse health effects from the smoke. In addition, ozone does not remove particles from the air, and would therefore not be effective during smoke events. (Some ozone generators include an ion generator to remove particles, but it would be far safer to buy the ionizer by itself.)
For more information about ozone generators marketed as air cleaners:
www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/ozonegen.html http://www.dhs.ca.gov/ps/dcdc/cm/pdf/cm9803pp.pdf.
Humidifiers
Humidifiers are not air cleaners, and will not significantly reduce the amount of particles in the air during a smoke event. Nor will they remove gases like carbon monoxide. However, humidifiers and dehumidifiers (depending on the environment) may slightly reduce pollutants through condensation, absorption and other mechanisms. In an arid environment, one possible benefit of running a humidifier during a smoke event might be to help the mucus membranes remain comfortably moist, which may reduce eye and airway irritation. However, the usefulness of humidification during a smoke event has not been studied.
Wildfire Smoke: A Safety Guide
COUNTY OF HUMBOLDT
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
PHILLIP R. CRANDALL, DIRECTOR
PUBLIC HEALTH BRANCH
ALEXANDRA WINELAND, DIRECTOR
529 I Street Eureka, CA 95501
(707) 445-6200 Fax: (707) 445-6097
Wildfire Smoke: A Safety Guide
Health effects of smoke
Not everyone who is exposed to thick smoke will have health problems. The level and duration of exposure, age, individual susceptibility, including the presence or absence of pre-existing lung or heart disease, and other factors play significant roles in determining whether or not someone will experience smoke-related health problems.
One concern that may be raised by members of the general public is whether they run an increased risk of cancer or other long-term health impacts of exposure to wildfire smoke. However, in general, the long-term risk from short-term smoke exposure is quite low. People exposed to toxic air pollutants at sufficient concentrations and durations may have slightly increased risks of cancer or of experiencing other chronic health problems. Epidemiological studies have shown that urban firefighters exposed to smoke over an entire working lifetime have about a three-fold increased risk of developing lung cancer (Hansen 1990). This provides some perspective on the potential risks.
Sensitive populations
Most healthy adults and children will recover quickly from smoke exposures and will not suffer long-term consequences. However, certain sensitive populations may experience more severe short-term and chronic symptoms from smoke exposure. Much of the information about how particulate matter affects these groups has come from studies involving airborne particles in cities, though a few studies examining the effects of exposure to smoke suggest that the health effects of wildfire smoke are likely to be similar. More research is needed to determine whether particles from wildfires affect susceptible subpopulations differently.
Individuals with asthma and other respiratory diseases: Levels of pollutants that may not affect healthy people may cause breathing difficulties for people with asthma or other chronic lung diseases. Asthma, derived from the Greek word for panting, is a condition characterized by chronic inflammation of the airways, with intermittent bronchoconstriction and airflow obstruction, causing shortness of breath, wheezing, chest tightness, coughing, sometimes accompanied by excess phlegm production. During an asthma attack, the muscles tighten around the airways and the lining of the airways becomes inflamed and swollen, constricting the free flow of air. Because children’s airways are narrower than those of adults, irritation that would create minor problems for an adult may result in significant obstruction in the airways of a young child. However, the highest mortality rates from asthma occur among older adults.
Individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which is generally considered to encompass emphysema and chronic bronchitis, may also experience a worsening of their conditions because of exposure to wildfire smoke. Patients with COPD often have an asthmatic component to their condition, which may result in their experiencing asthma-like symptoms. However, because their pulmonary reserve has typically been seriously compromised, additional bronchoconstriction in individuals with COPD may result in symptoms requiring medical attention. Epidemiological studies have indicated that individuals with COPD run an increased risk of requiring emergency medical care after exposure to particulate matter or forest fire smoke. Exposure to smoke may also depress the lung’s ability to fight infection. People with COPD may develop lower respiratory infections after exposure to wildfire smoke, which may require urgent medical care as well. In addition, because COPD is usually the result of many years of smoking, individuals with this condition may also have heart disease, and are potentially at risk from both conditions.
Individuals with airway hyperresponsiveness: A significant fraction of the population may have airway hyperresponsiveness, an exaggerated tendency of the bronchi and bronchioles to constrict in response to respiratory irritants and other stimuli. While airway hyperresponsiveness is considered a hallmark of asthma, this tendency may also be found in many nonasthmatics, as well; for example, during and following a lower respiratory tract infection. In such individuals, smoke exposure may cause bronchospasm and asthma-like symptoms.
Individuals with cardiovascular disease: Diseases of the circulatory system include, among others, high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases, such as coronary artery disease and congestive heart failure, and cerebrovascular conditions, such as atherosclerosis of the arteries bringing blood to the brain. These chronic conditions can render individuals susceptible to attacks of angina pectoris, heart attacks, sudden death due to a cardiac arrhythmia, acute congestive heart failure, or stroke. Cardiovascular diseases represent the leading cause of death in the United States, responsible for about 30 to 40 percent of all deaths each year. The vast majority of these deaths are in people over the age of 65. Studies have linked urban particulate matter to increased risks of heart attacks, cardiac arrhythmias, and other adverse effects in those with cardiovascular disease. People with chronic lung or heart disease may experience one or more of the following symptoms: shortness of breath, chest tightness, pain in the chest, neck, shoulder or arm, palpitations, or unusual fatigue or lightheadedness. Chemical messengers released into the blood because of particle-related lung inflammation may increase the risk of blood clot formation, angina episodes, heart attacks and strokes.
The elderly. In several studies researchers have estimated that tens of thousands of elderly people die prematurely each year from exposure to particulate air pollution, probably because the elderly are more likely to have pre-existing lung and heart diseases, and therefore are more susceptible to particle-associated effects. The elderly may also be more affected than younger people because important respiratory defense mechanisms may decline with age. Particulate air pollution can compromise the function of alveolar macrophages, cells involved in immune defenses in the lungs, potentially increasing susceptibility to bacterial or viral respiratory infections.
Children. Children, even those without any pre-existing illness or chronic conditions, are considered a sensitive population because their lungs are still developing, making them more susceptible to air pollution than healthy adults. Several factors lead to increased exposure in children compared with adults: they tend to spend more time outside; they engage in more vigorous activity, and they inhale more air (and therefore more particles) per pound of body weight. Studies have shown that particulate pollution is associated with increased respiratory symptoms and decreased lung function in children, including symptoms such as episodes of coughing and difficulty.
Pregnant women. While there have not been studies of the effects of exposure to wildfire smoke on pregnancy outcomes, there is evidence of adverse effects of repeated exposures to cigarette smoke, including both active and passive smoking. Wildfire smoke contains many of the same compounds as cigarette smoke. In addition, recent data suggest that exposures to air pollution in cities may result in low birthweight and possibly other, more serious adverse reproductive effects. Therefore, it would be prudent to consider pregnant women as a potentially susceptible population as well.
Smokers. People who smoke, especially those who have smoked for many years, have already compromised their lung function. However, due to adaptation of their lungs to ongoing irritation, smokers are less likely to report symptoms from exposure to irritant chemicals than are nonsmokers. However, they may still be injured by wildfire smoke. Therefore, some smokers may unwittingly put themselves at greater risk of potentially harmful wildfire smoke exposures, believing that they are not being affected.
Recommendations for the public
If smoke is present:
- Stay inside with windows and doors shut. Use the recycle or re-circulate mode on the air conditioner in your home or car. On days when smoke clears, open house windows to air out the building.
· Avoid cooking and vacuuming, which can increase pollutants indoors.
· Avoid physical exertion.
· Asthmatics should follow their asthma management plan.
· Keep at least a five-day supply of medication on hand.
· Contact your doctor if you have symptoms such as chest pain, chest tightness, shortness of breath, or severe fatigue. This is important for not only for people with chronic lung or heart disease, but also for individuals who have not been previously diagnosed with such illnesses. Smoke can “unmask” or produce symptoms of such diseases.
· Keep airways moist by drinking lots of water. Breathing through a warm, wet washcloth can also help relieve dryness.
· Check on your neighbors
· Use common sense
· Smokers should consider quitting or at least not smoking inside if people with sensitive health conditions are present.
Specific strategiesStaying Indoors
The most common advisory issued during a smoke pollution episode is to stay indoors. The usefulness of this strategy depends entirely on how clean the indoor air is. This strategy can usually provide some protection, especially in a tightly closed, air-conditioned house in which the air-conditioner can be set to re-circulate air instead of bringing in outdoor air. Staying inside with the doors and windows closed can usually reduce exposure to ambient air pollution by about a third. In homes without air conditioning, indoor concentrations of fine particles can approach 70 to 100 percent of the outdoor concentrations. In very leaky homes and buildings, the guidance to stay inside with doors and windows closed may offer little protection. If doors and windows are left open, particle levels indoors and outdoors will be about the same.
Increased risk of heat stress is also an important drawback of advising people to stay inside during smoke events. The fire season typically extends from mid-summer through the early fall, when high outside temperatures are common. For individuals who depend on open windows and doors for ventilation, keeping windows and doors closed can be problematic. Older individuals and others in frail health run the risk of heat exhaustion or heat stroke, which could have dire consequences. If outdoor temperatures are very high, it would be wise to advise those without air conditioning to stay with friends or family who do, go to a fresh air shelter in their community, or to leave the area. This and other options are discussed below.
Sometimes smoke events can last for several weeks or (rarely) months. These longer events are usually punctuated by periods of relatively clean air. When air quality improves, even temporarily, residents should “air out” their homes to reduce indoor air pollution. People may also wish to clean their residences during such reduced smoke intervals, including mopping, dusting, and vacuuming, in order to reduce subsequent re-suspension of particles that may have settled when the smoke was thicker.
Reduced activity
Reducing physical activity is an important and effective strategy to lower the dose of inhaled air pollutants and minimize health risks during a smoke event. During exercise, people can increase their air intake as much as 10 to 20 times their resting level. Increased breathing rates bring more pollution deep into the lungs. Furthermore, while exercising, people tend to breathe through their mouths, bypassing the natural filtering ability of the nasal passages, again delivering more pollution to the lungs. They also tend to breathe more deeply, modifying the normal patterns of particle deposition in the lungs.
Reduce other sources of indoor air pollution
Many indoor sources of air pollution can emit large amounts of the same pollutants present in forest fire smoke. Indoor sources such as burning cigarettes, gas, propane and wood-burning stoves and furnaces, and activities such as cooking, burning candles and incense, and vacuuming can greatly increase the particle levels in a home and should be avoided during high pollution or when wildfire smoke is present. For instance, in a room of 125 square feet, it takes only 10 minutes for the side-stream smoke of 4 cigarettes to create levels of particles in the hazardous ranges. Frying or broiling some foods can produce even higher levels of particles in the kitchen and dining areas. Besides cigarette smoke, combustion sources that do not properly vent to the outdoors (including “room-vented” or “vent-free” appliances) contribute most to indoor pollutant levels, and are of greatest concern. Reducing indoor air pollutant emissions during smoke events may reduce indoor particle levels by one quarter to one third or more
Air conditioners
Little is known about the impact of using various types of air conditioners and air filters on indoor air pollutant concentrations. The conventional wisdom is that air conditioners reduce the amount of outdoor particles infiltrating indoors because air-conditioned homes usually have lower air exchange rates than homes that use open windows for ventilation. However, some air conditioners have both “outdoor air” and “re-circulate” settings; these air-conditioners need to be set on “re-circulate”.
Some air conditioners may also be fitted with filters. The more useful are HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Arrestor) filters, which can capture most of the tiny particles associated with smoke and can further reduce the amount of outside air pollution that gets indoors. For information on how to select and use a HEPA filter, go to www.humboldthealthalert.org or call the Willow Creek Public Health Office (530) 629 2410.
Room air cleaners
Some air cleaners can be effective at reducing indoor particle levels, provided the specific air cleaner is adequately matched to the indoor environment in which it is placed. Most air cleaners are not effective at removing gases and odors. The two basic types for particle removal include:
(a) Mechanical air cleaners, which contain a fiber or fabric filter. The filters need to be sealed tightly in their holders, and cleaned or replaced regularly.
(b) Electronic air cleaners, such as electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) and ionizers. ESPs use a small electrical charge to collect particles from air pulled through the device. Ionizers, or negative ion generators, cause particles to stick to materials (such as carpet and walls) near the device. Electronic air cleaners usually produce small amounts of ozone (a respiratory irritant that can damage lungs) as a byproduct.
The effectiveness of an air cleaner is usually reported in terms of efficiency, which can be misleading, as it only tells half of the story. The other important factor is airflow. Together, these two factors equal the Clean Air Delivery Rate (CADR), which is a better measure of how a device will actually perform. For example, 99.99 percent efficiency sounds great, but if the air exchange rate is only 20 cubic feet per minute (cfm), one would be better off at 90 percent efficiency with 100 cfm air exchange rate (CADR: 20 vs 90 cfm).
Room air cleaner units should be sized to filter at least two or three times the room volume per hour. Most portable units will state on the package the unit’s airflow rate, the room size it is suitable for, its particle removal efficiency and perhaps its CADR. Central system air units should handle at least 0.5 air changes per hour, the air exchange rate necessary to reasonably ventilate a house continuously under most conditions.
High and medium efficiency media filters and electrostatic precipitators can be added to central air conditioning systems to keep particle levels in indoor air within acceptable levels during a prolonged smoke event. However, these filters create greater air resistance in the air conditioning system, and may require modifications to the system. In addition, electronic air-cleaners can increase indoor levels of ozone, as noted above.
Devices that remove gases and odors are relatively costly, both to purchase and maintain. They force air through materials such as activated charcoal or alumina coated with potassium permanganate. However, the filtering medium can become quickly overloaded and may need to be replaced often.
For more information about residential air cleaners:
www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/residair.html http://www.arb.ca.gov/research/indoor/acdsumm.htm www.lungusa.org/pub/cleaners/air_clean_toc.html
Air cleaners can be purchased from most hardware stores, Sears, or on-line retailers such as Home Depot, Wal-Mart, Costco, or Amazon.
Ozone generators – a poor choice
Some devices, known as ozone generators, personal ozone devices, “energized oxygen” generators, and “pure air” generators, are sold as air cleaners, but the position of public health agencies, including the California Air Resources Board and US Environmental Protection Agency, is that they do more harm than good. These devices are designed to produce ozone gas to react with pollutants in the air. Ozone is composed of three atoms of oxygen. The third atom can detach from the molecule and reattach to molecules of other substances, altering their chemical composition. It is this ability to react with other substances that forms the basis of the manufacturers’ claims.
Ozone, whether in its pure form or mixed with other chemicals, can be harmful to health. When inhaled, ozone can damage the lungs. Relatively low amounts of ozone can irritate the airways, cause coughing, chest pain and tightness, and shortness of breath. It can also worsen chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, as well as compromise the body’s ability to fight respiratory infections. As a result, using an ozone generator during a smoke event may actually increase the adverse health effects from the smoke. In addition, ozone does not remove particles from the air, and would therefore not be effective during smoke events. (Some ozone generators include an ion generator to remove particles, but it would be far safer to buy the ionizer by itself.)
For more information about ozone generators marketed as air cleaners:
www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/ozonegen.html http://www.dhs.ca.gov/ps/dcdc/cm/pdf/cm9803pp.pdf.
Humidifiers
Humidifiers are not air cleaners, and will not significantly reduce the amount of particles in the air during a smoke event.
Nor will they remove gases like carbon monoxide.
However, humidifiers and dehumidifiers (depending on the environment) may slightly reduce pollutants through condensation, absorption and other mechanisms.
In a dry environment, one possible benefit of running a humidifier
during a smoke event might be to help the mucus membranes remain comfortably moist, which may reduce eye and airway irritation.
However, the usefulness of humidification during a smoke event has not been studied.
Inside vehicles
Individuals can reduce the amount of smoke in their vehicles by keeping the windows and vents closed. However, in hot weather a car’s interior can heat up very quickly to temperatures that far exceed those outdoors, and heat-related stress can result. Children and pets should never be left unattended in a vehicle with the windows closed. The car’s ventilation system typically removes a small portion of the particles coming in from outside. Most vehicles can re-circulate the inside air, which will help keep the particle levels lower. Drivers should check the owner’s manual and assure that the system is set correctly to minimize entry of outdoor smoke and particles.
Fresh Air Shelters
During severe smoke events, cleaner air shelters can be designated to provide residents with a place to get out of the smoke. Staying inside may not adequately protect sensitive individuals, however, since many houses and apartments do not have air conditioning, and depend on open windows and doors for cooling. Other homes may be so leaky that indoor pollution levels will quickly equal those outside. Cleaner air shelters can be located any place with effective air conditioning and particle filtration.
Evacuation
The most common call for evacuation during a wildfire is due to the direct threat of engulfment by the fire rather than by exposure to smoke.
Leaving an area of thick smoke may be a good protective measure for members of sensitive groups, but it is often difficult to predict the duration, intensity and direction of smoke, making this an unattractive option to many people.
Even if smoky conditions are expected to continue for weeks, it may not be feasible to evacuate a large percentage of the affected population.
Moreover, the process of evacuation can entail serious risks, particularly if poor visibility makes driving hazardous.
In these situations, the risks posed by driving with reduced visibility need to be weighed against the potential benefits of evacuation.
Summary of Strategies for Exposure Reduction
When wildfires are expected to create smoky conditions, people can pursue a number of strategies to reduce their exposure. Those with moderate to severe heart or respiratory disease might consider staying with relatives or friends who live away from the smoke during the fires. If smoke is already present in substantial quantities, such individuals may want to evaluate whether evacuation might actually cause greater exposure than staying at home using other precautions described above.
All people in a smoky area (except firefighters or emergency personnel) should avoid strenuous work or exercise outdoors. They should avoid driving whenever possible. If driving is necessary, people should run the air conditioner on the “recycle” or re-circulate mode to avoid drawing smoky air into the car.
Closing up a building by shutting windows and doors can give some protection from smoke. If the building has air conditioning, its controls should be set in the “recycle” mode, if possible, to prevent smoke-laden air from being drawn into the building.
Once people have closed up the building in which they live or work, they should avoid strenuous activity, which can make them breathe harder and faster. They should drink plenty of fluids to keep their respiratory membranes moist. They may even want to breathe through a moistened washcloth, as long as it does not interfere with their ability to breathe. Dust masks generally do not capture very fine particles and may make it more difficult to breathe, especially for people with chronic lung diseases such as chronic bronchitis or emphysema.
In preparation for the fire season or a smoke event, it is a good idea to have enough food on hand to last several days, so that driving can be minimized. It is also important to have at least a five-day supply of medication for the same reason. Foods stored for use during the fire season should not require cooking, since cooking can add particles to indoor air. Vacuuming should also be avoided, since most vacuum cleaners disperse very fine dust into the air.
If smoke levels increase to very unhealthy or hazardous levels, it may be appropriate for some individuals to stay in a clean room in the home, relocate temporarily to a cleaner air shelter, or to leave the area entirely if it is safe to do so.
Acknowledgements
This guide is adapted from a document written by Harriet Ammann, Washington Department of Health; Robert Blaisdell and Michael Lipsett, California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Susan Lyon Stone, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; and Shannon Therriault, Missoula County Health Department, with input from individuals in several other state and federal agencies, in particular Jed Waldman of the California Department of Health Services, Peggy Jenkins of the California Air Resources Board, and editorial support from Kate Lynch, Washington State Department of Health. It was developed in part as a result of a workshop held at the University of Washington in June 2001, under the auspices of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region X, and the Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Community Medicine of the University of Washington. The viewpoints and policies expressed in this document do not necessarily represent those of the various agencies and organizations listed.
Bibliography
California Air Resources Board, Fact Sheet on Air Cleaning Devices and the Home: http://www.arb.ca.gov/research/indoor/acdsumm.htm
Coefield, John and Cyra Cain. 2001. Forest Fire Smoke Categories. Montana Department of Environmental Quality,
Brauer, Michael. 1999. Health Impacts of Biomass Air Pollution. World Health Organization. Background papers for Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events, Lima, Peru, 6-9 October 1998. Available at http://depts.washington.edu/wildfire/
Hansen, E. S. A cohort study on the mortality of firefighters. Br J Ind Med 47: 805-809, 1990.
Jenkins, Peggy and Scott Fruin. 2000. Shelter in Place with Windows and Doors Closed from the Summary of Forest Fire/Prescribed Burning Smoke Meeting. Oakland, California. Available at http://depts.washington.edu/wildfire/
Jenkins, Peggy and Tom Phillips. 2000. Reduce the Use of Indoor Sources from the Summary of Forest Fire/Prescribed Burning Smoke Meeting. Oakland, California. Available at http://depts.washington.edu/wildfire/
Natural Resources Defense Council. 1996. Clean Air and Energy: Air Pollution, Frequently Asked Questions: Particulate Pollution. Based on Breath-Taking: Premature Mortality Due to Particulate Air Pollution in 239 American Cities. Natural Resources Defense Council,
Ostermann, Kathryn and Michael Brauer. Chapter 10: Air Quality During Haze Episodes and Its Impact on Health. Available at http://depts.washington.edu/wildfire/
Physicians for Social Responsibility. 1997. Asthma and the Role of Air Pollution: What the Primary Care Physician Should Know. PSR,
1875 Connecticut Ave. NW, Suite 1012, Washington, D.C. 20009.
Available at
http://www.psr.org/asthmap01.pdf
Smith, Andy. 1999. Handling Air Pollution Episodes: Lessons learned from Big Bar Complex Wildfire. Available at http://depts.washington.edu/wildfire/
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002. Air quality criteria for particulate matter. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Center for Environmental Assessment – RTP Office; Third External Review Draft. Available at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/partmatt.htm
US Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Ozone Generators that are Sold as Air Cleaners: An Assessment of Effectiveness and Health Consequences. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/ozonegen.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000. The Air Quality Index Guide to Air Quality and Your Health. Research Triangle Park, NC. Available at http://www.epa.gov/airnow/aqibroch/
US Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Health and Environmental Effects of Particulate Matter. Office of Air and Radiation, Washington, DC, 20460. Available at http://www.epa.gov/rgytgrnj/programs/artd/air/quality/pmhealth.htm
US Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Residential Air Cleaning Devices: A summary of available information. Office of Air and Radiation, Washington, DC, 20460. EPA 400/1-90-002. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/residair.html.
Waldman, Jed. 2000. Use of Air Cleaners in Homes, Schools and Worksites in the Summary of Forest Fire/Prescribed Burning Smoke Meeting. Oakland, California. Available at http://depts.washington.edu/wildfire/
Resources/ Links
For 24 hour air quality updates call the North Coast Unified Air Quality Management District, (866) 287-6329.
California Department of Forestry fire information: http://www.fire.ca.gov/
National Fire Weather: http://www.boi.noaa.gov/firewx.htm Weather Service: http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/National
National Wildland Fire Information: http://www.nifc.gov/information.html
Forest Service Wildland Fire Morning Report: http://www.fs.fed.us/news/fire/
U.S. Environmental Health Protection Agency Air Quality Website: http://www.epa.gov/airnow/publications.html
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011.
Available at
www.nrdc.org/air/pollution/qbreath.aspPO Box 200901, Helena, MT 59620
Reportable Communicable Diseases Health Alert Effective: 10/28/2009
